These sensors are notable for being fully resistant to fouling issues. As such, toroidal sensors are commonly used in applications that call for high water conductivity, which include seawater monitoring, cooling towers , and chemical processing. For instance, the CSTC sensor can be used in environmental and laboratory applications. This specific sensor can be mounted within a pipe, used in combination with a benchtop meter, or submerged directly into a tank, which makes it a highly versatile sensor.
These models come with a heavy-duty, stainless-steel body and can accommodate a maximum temperature of degrees Celsius. If you require a sensor to measure the water in a cooling tower, the CSTC model is designed specifically for this application.
This model is able to resist fouling and comes with digital communication. As for the standard toroidal sensor, this option is ideal for industrial and chemical use. These sensors are known to be extremely precise and come with very little maintenance requirements. Identifying these changes will also help you keep issues like scaling and biocide at bay, the former of which will almost certainly make your boiler or cooling tower less efficient.
This testing can be done in a wide array of different environments and settings, many of which are industrial in nature. Some of the more common uses of EC testing equipment occur with environmental testing , in cooling towers, in boilers, and in laboratories with pharmaceutical testing. If the testing equipment is set to be used at a wastewater treatment facility, it can control the activated sludge process.
If you have an outdoor pool at your home, the use of EC testing equipment will allow you to identify the TDS levels in the pool water. If the levels reach higher than 2, PPM, the water will need to be filtered or drained to prevent scale buildup. No matter which industry you work in, this measurement will be able to help you determine if you need to treat the wate r.
The readings that you obtain will help you determine if the EC levels are too high or too low. However, there are a few organisms that can adapt to a range of salinities. These euryhaline organisms can be anadromous, catadromous or true euryhaline. Anadromous organisms live in saltwater but spawn in freshwater.
Catadromous species are the opposite — they live in freshwater and migrate to saltwater to spawn True euryhaline species can be found in saltwater or freshwater at any point in their life cycle Estuarine organisms are true euryhaline. Euryhaline species live in or travel through estuaries, where saline zonation is evident. Salinity levels in an estuary can vary from freshwater to seawater over a short distance While euryhaline species can comfortably travel across these zones, stenohaline organisms cannot and will only be found at one end of the estuary or the other.
Species such as sea stars and sea cucumbers cannot tolerate low salinity levels, and while coastal, will not be found within many estuaries Some aquatic organisms can even be sensitive to the ionic composition of the water.
An influx of a specific salt can negatively affect a species, regardless of whether the salinity levels remain within an acceptable range Salinity tolerances depend on the osmotic processes within an organism. Fish and other aquatic life that live in fresh water low-conductivity are hyperosmotic Thus these organisms maintain higher internal ionic concentrations than the surrounding water On the other side of the spectrum, saltwater high-conductivity organisms are hypoosmotic and maintain a lower internal ionic concentration than seawater.
Euryhaline organisms are able to adapt their bodies to the changing salt levels. Each group of organisms has adapted to the ionic concentrations of their respective environments, and will absorb or excrete salts as needed Altering the conductivity of the environment by increasing or decreasing salt levels will negatively affect the metabolic abilities of the organisms.
Even altering the type of ion such as potassium for sodium can be detrimental to aquatic life if their biological processes cannot deal with the different ion Most aquatic organisms prefer either freshwater or saltwater.
Few species traverse between salinity gradients, and fewer still tolerate daily salinity fluctuations. A sudden increase or decrease in conductivity in a body of water can indicate pollution. Agricultural runoff or a sewage leak will increase conductivity due to the additional chloride, phosphate and nitrate ions 1. An oil spill or addition of other organic compounds would decrease conductivity as these elements do not break down into ions In both cases, the additional dissolved solids will have a negative impact on water quality.
Salinity affects water density. The higher the dissolved salt concentration, the higher the density of water 4. The increase in density with salt levels is one of the driving forces behind ocean circulation When sea ice forms near the polar regions, it does not include the salt ions. Instead, the water molecules freeze, forcing the salt into pockets of briny water This brine eventually drains out of the ice, leaving behind an air pocket and increasing the salinity of the water surrounding the ice.
As this saline water is denser than the surrounding water, it sinks, creating a convection pattern that can influence ocean circulation for hundreds of kilometers Conductivity and salinity vary greatly between different bodies of water. Most freshwater streams and lakes have low salinity and conductivity values. The oceans have a high conductivity and salinity due to the high number of the dissolved salts present. In streams and rivers, normal conductivity levels come from the surrounding geology 1.
Clay soils will contribute to conductivity, while granite bedrock will not 1. The minerals in clay will ionize as they dissolve, while granite remains inert. Likewise, groundwater inflows will contribute to the conductivity of the stream or river depending on the geology that the groundwater flows through.
Groundwater that is heavily ionized from dissolved minerals will increase the conductivity of the water into which it flows. Most of the salt in the ocean comes from runoff, sediment and tectonic activity Rain contains carbonic acid, which can contribute to rock erosion. As rain flows over rocks and soil, the minerals and salts are broken down into ions and are carried along, eventually reaching the ocean Hydrothermal vents along the bottom of the ocean also contribute dissolved minerals As hot water seeps out of the vents, it releases minerals with it.
Submarine volcanoes can spew dissolved minerals and carbon dioxide into the ocean The dissolved carbon dioxide can become carbonic acid which can erode rocks on the surrounding seafloor and add to the salinity.
As water evaporates off the surface of the ocean, the salts from these sources are left behind to accumulate over millions of years Discharges such as pollution can also contribute to salinity and TDS, as wastewater effluent increases salt ions and an oil spill increases total dissolved solids 1. Water flow and water level changes can also contribute to conductivity through their impact on salinity. Water temperature can cause conductivity levels to fluctuate daily.
In addition to its direct effect on conductivity, temperature also influences water density, which leads to stratification. Stratified water can have different conductivity values at different depths.
Water flow, whether it is from a spring, groundwater, rain, confluence or other sources can affect the salinity and conductivity of water.
Likewise, reductions in flow from dams or river diversions can also alter conductivity levels Water level changes, such as tidal stages and evaporation will cause salinity and conductivity levels to fluctuate as well.
When water temperature increases, so will conductivity 3. Temperature affects conductivity by increasing ionic mobility as well as the solubility of many salts and minerals This can be seen in diurnal variations as a body of water warms up due to sunlight, and conductivity increases and then cools down at night decreasing conductivity. This standardized reporting method is called specific conductance 1. In the SWMP data, a higher conductivity value indicates that there are more chemicals dissolved in the water.
It is the opposite of resistance. Pure, distilled water is a poor conductor of electricity. When salts and other inorganic chemicals dissolve in water, they break into tiny, electrically charged particles called ions. Common ions in water that conduct electrical current include sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium.
Because dissolved salts and other inorganic chemicals conduct electrical current, conductivity increases as salinity increases. Organic compounds, such as sugars, oils, and alcohols, do not form ions that conduct electricity. Aquatic animals and plants are adapted for a certain range of salinity. Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current.
Because dissolved salts and other inorganic chemicals conduct electrical current, conductivity increases as salinity increases.
Organic compounds like oil do not conduct electrical current very well and therefore have a low conductivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. Conductivity is useful as a general measure of water quality.
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